Species: Canine   |   Classification: Miscellaneous

X-ray generation

  • X-rays are electromagnetic radiation.
  • Their usefulness stems from a number of properties:
    • Travel in straight lines.
    • Can pass through a vacuum.
    • Travel at constant speed.
    • Variably absorbed by body tissue.
    • Affect photographic film to produce a latent image Radiography: processing.
    • Cause certain substances to fluoresce (emit visible light).

Construction of x-ray tube head

  • X-rays are produced when electrons are rapidly deccelerated.
  • The x-ray tube head requires:
    • A source of electrons.
    • A means of accelerating them.
    • A target to convert incident energy from electrons ’ x-rays.
  • The tube head consists of 2 electrodes in a vaccuum (see diagram Radiation physics x-ray tube head construction ).

Cathode

  • Thecathodeis a coiled tungsten wire which releases a cloud of electrons when heated.
  • The number of electrons produced is dependent on the temperature of the filament.
  • The electron cloud is focussed into a beam by a negatively charged molybdenum or nickelfocussing cup.
  • A high potential difference is applied across the tube head such that electrons are accelerated towards the anode.

Anode

  • The electrons are attracted to the anode by virtue of its positive charge.
  • Theanodecontains a tungsten target which the electrons strike at high speed.
  • 99% of the energy is lost as heat but 1% is converted to x-rays.
  • Target must be able to withstand high temperature without melting or vaporizing.
  • The target should be as large as possible so that the heat can be lost more quickly - however a large target area produces a wide beam of x-rays which produces poor image quality.
  • To compensate for this the target is set at an angle so that the incident electron beam strikes a wide area but the x-ray beam appears to originate from a smaller focal spot Radiation physics focal spot size.
  • The heat dissipation can be assisted by two different mechanisms:
  • Simple x-ray machine:
    • The target is set into a copper heat sink.
    • Copper is a good conductor of heat and the heat is rapidly drawn away from the target to cooling fins which absorb heat Radiation physics stationary anode.
  • Rotating anode machine:
    • The target area is the bevelled rim of a metal disk.
    • The disc rotates rapidly (up to 9000 revs/min) during exposure so that the incident electron stream is constantly striking a different area of the target Radiation physics rotating anode.
    • The heat generated is spread over a larger area allowing higher exposures to be made.
    • Heat is dissipated through radiation into the vaccuum.

Glass envelope

  • The cathode, anode and part of the copper stem are contained within a glass envelope which maintains the vaccuum.
  • The envelope is bathed in oil to act as a heat sink and electrical insulator.

Casing

  • The whole unit is enclosed in an earthed, lead-lined metal casing.
  • There is a small window in the casing which allows a narrow beam of electronsprimary beamto escape.

Aluminium filters

  • Filter out "soft" x-rays produced by the anode.
  • These have insufficient energy to be diagnostically useful but increase radiation dose to patient.

General Construction of x-ray machines



Line-voltage transformer
  • If mains electricity output fluctuates different exposures will be achieved with the same x-ray machine settings.
  • Fluctuations in mains voltage are compensated for by a transformer within the x-ray machine circuit.
Light beam diaphragm
  • Enables illumination of the site of the primary x-ray beam:
    • Avoids excess scatter.
    • Allows two views to be radiographed on a single film ’ improved economy.
    • Centering over area of interest is more accurate.
    • Delineates the primary so that if manual restraint is necessary the handler can avoid the primary beam.

Electronic exposure button

  • Two stage button:
    • Stage 1 (prep): heats the cathode and rotates anode is applicable.
    • Stage 2 (exposure): applies potential acros tubehead to release x-rays.
  • At least 2 m of coiled cable should be available to allow radiographer to stand as far away from tubehead as possible.

Kilovoltage (kV) control

  • Alters the potential difference applied across the tube head during exposure.
  • Alters the speed and energy with which electrons hit the target and hence the pentrating power of the subsequent x-ray beam.
  • In some machines it is linked to mA so that if high mA is selected, kV must be reduced.

Milliamperage (mA) control

  • Controls the heating of the filament and hence the number of electrons released by the cathode.
  • This directly affects the quantity of x-rays produced.

Timer

  • The time for which the exposure is applied affects the number of x-rays produced.
  • The quantity is usually measured as a combination of amperage and time, ie mAs.
  • The longer the exposure the more chance there is of a patient moving so it is preferable to use the highest mA permissible with a given kV and reduce the exposure time accordingly.
  • Older machines had clockwork timers but new machines have electronic timers which are quieter and more accurate.

Types of X-ray machines



Portable machines
  • Stationary anode (heat lost by convection and conduction).
  • Self or half wave rectified.
  • Often fixed mA
  • Occasionally fixed kV.
  • Run from domestic supply (13 amp).
  • Cheaper than mobile/3-phase machines to buy and maintain.
  • Can be dismantled and used for domicillary examinations.
Mobile machines
  • Rotating anode (heat lost by radiation)
  • Usually full wave rectified - 2-pulse.
  • May be capacitor discharged.
  • High and variable mA facilitating shorter exposure times.
  • Higher output allows grid Radiography: scattered radiation and grid use to be used more readily.
  • More expensive to buy and maintain than portable machines.
  • Limited to use within the practice unless van or trailer used!
3-Phase machines
  • Rotating anode.
  • Full wave rectified - 6 pulse.
  • High and variable mA and kV.
  • Very high exposures and short exposure times possible.
  • Expensive to buy and service.
  • Fixed installation ’ dedicated room needed.
Medium frequency (high frequency) machines
  • An invertor increases the frequency of the electrical supply so that with vastly increased number of pulses the ripple factor is negligible and the generator is equivalent to a constant potential unit.
  • Used in some mobile machines which may use a battery supply and some fixed machines which run off a 13 amp supply.